MILITARY SATELLITES FOR INDIAN NAVY’S MARITIME OPERATIONS

Overview

To say that the maritime environment has become increasingly complex is to state a truism. Within that domain, space technologies provide multiple capabilities that could be utilitised under dynamic conditions. The existing space-based systems cater to various requirements and maritime surveillance is one such important tasking. Newer technologies continue to impact warfare in the maritime dimension as indeed it has for long with earlier technologies. The change seems at a faster pace in our times though.¹ Therefore, it would be prudent to consider the relevance of space technologies in this domain.

The major function of military satellites is to provide Imagery Intelligence (IMINT) of the Area of Interest (AOI) as well as ‘Latitude-Longitude’ requested by Army, Navy, Air Force and intelligence organisations. Rapidly growing Intelligence, Surveillance, Reconnaissance (ISR) and targeting requirements, and the increasing unpredictability of who and where we may fight, make our satellite systems more critical every day.

The primary mission of the Indian Navy (IN) is to credibly deter and if required, decisively defeat aggression by major regional powers. To accomplish this mission, we must be able to project power anywhere in the world, at any time, to deter and defeat enemies threatening the vital interests of the country.

The current geopolitical situation in IOR requires deployment of ships, submarines and aircraft for anti-piracy operations, increased diplomatic engagement, Non-combatant Evacuation Operations (NEO), Humanitarian Assistance and Disaster Relief (HADR) operations and joint maritime exercises with several navies. These varied tasks place high demands on exploitation of all sea going assets. On the other hand, the Indian Navy’s fleet is ageing, with a number of vessels reaching the zenith of their life cycles. Refits, Repairs and Operational Defects (OPDEFs) are a reality and impact operational availability. Other factors affecting availability of assets could be delayed refits due to various reasons.

Advantages of Using Military Satellites for IMINT

Briefly, the major advantages of military satellites are: -

• Technology for space-based imagery intelligence already exists. Presently, India has a few Indian military satellites in orbit. One can assume that these satellites are instrumental in the intelligence that is gathered before, during and after various operations.

• After launch, the satellites do not require maintenance and are thus, available round the clock for operations. The Orbital Manoeuvres (OM) of satellites are undertaken occasionally to keep them more mission effective. However, manoeuvres do require some source of energy which may be limited onboard.

• Some satellites are all weather and night imagery capable due to their Synthetic Aperture Radars (SAR).

• Satellites can carry out ISR tasks over almost any part of the world depending on orbital profiles feasible with near impunity since space is part of the ‘global commons.’

• Satellites are not easy to detect by conventional radars or sensors since they orbit relatively high. However, certain satellites can be targeted by Anti-Satellite (ASAT) weapons.

• Satellites do not have some of the disadvantages that drones may have. Drones fly at low altitudes and are thus, more vulnerable to counter-measures and counter attacks. Anti-drone weapons are far more ubiquitous than ASAT capabilities can be.

Steps Taken Since 2018 to Strengthen the ‘Military Use of Space’ in India

Creation of Defence Space Agency (DSA). A major step to enhance space capability was the creation of DSA. It is a Tri-Service agency of the Indian Armed Forces headquartered in Bengaluru. The DSA is tasked to enhance the capabilities of armed forces to fight wars in space, operation of space-warfare and satellite intelligence assets of India.

Conduct of Exercise ‘IndSpaceEx’.² India conducted its first simulated space warfare exercise on 25 and 26 Jul 2019. It was called IndSpaceEx. The purpose of the exercise was to understand the possible challenges in space warfare, imminent threats in expanse beyond the earth and to counter the growing influence of belligerent nations in this domain, which pose a major threat to India's national security interest.

Anti-Satellite (ASAT) Weapon Programme ‘Mission Shakti’.³ India conducted an Anti-Satellite (ASAT) weapon test in March 2019 which was aimed at demonstrating India's anti-satellite capability. As part of self-defence, US, Russia, China and India are the only four countries that have successfully manufactured and tested ASAT weapons on their own decommissioned satellites.

Launch of ELINT Satellite.⁴ Electro-Magnetic Image Gathering Satellite (EMISat), launched on 01 April 2019, is a maiden Indian reconnaissance satellite under Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) project ‘Kautilya.’ It provides space-based electronic signal intelligence or ELINT. This helps in improving situational awareness of the Indian Armed Forces by providing, among other things, parameters and location of enemy radars.

Exponential Growth of Space Startups in the Recent Past.⁵ India is evolving and developing space missions like Chandrayaan, Mangalyaan, PSLV, SSLV etc to be among the top space-tech countries in the world. ISRO has promulgated plans for private organisations to openly take part in space missions by using India’s resources. The space-tech start-ups are enthusiastically coming out and helping India achieve targets that were difficult or weren’t thought of before.⁶ The major space start-ups evolved in the recent past are Pixxel, Skyroot Aerospace, Bellatrix Aerospace, Agnikul Cosmos and Dhruva Space.

Replacement of GPS with (IRNSS) NavIc

The Indian Regional Satellite Navigation System (IRSS) with an operational name of Navigation with Indian Constellation (NavIC) is an autonomous system that will provide accurate real-time positioning and timing services.⁷ It covers India and a region extending 1,500 km (930 miles) around it. Currently NavIC is a constellation of seven satellites already orbiting with two additional satellites on ground as stand-by. There are plans to expand the NavIC by increasing its constellation size from seven to eleven. NavIC based trackers have become compulsory on commercial vehicles and consumer mobile phones in India. The trials of ground satellite receivers are in progress. Upon completion of trials, the system will be available for commercial use tentatively by the first half of 2022.

Modes of Operation & Accuracy. NavIc has two levels of service, the ‘Standard Positioning Service’, which will be open for civilian use and a "Restricted Service" (an encrypted one) for military purposes & other authorised users. The system is more accurate than GPS. Its accuracy is ranging from 10-100 cm as compared to 50-500 cm accuracy of GPS.

NASA-ISRO Synthetic Aperture Radar (NISAR) Mission. In collaboration with the USA, the NISAR mission is a joint project between NASA and ISRO to co-develop and launch a dual-frequency synthetic aperture radar on an Earth observation satellite. Dual frequency SAR enables better image resolution and faster dumping of data to ground stations and provides high resolutions of 5 to 10 meters, which is remarkable for a GEO satellite. The planned launched from India aboard a GSLV Mk II is on 29 January 2023.

Future Launch of GSAT-7R ‘Rukmani-II’ for IN. In July 2019, the Navy placed an order for GSAT-7R. Therefore, this would be the second communication cum surveillance satellite by 2023 to keep tabs on IOR via ISR and provide greater communications networking.

Shifting from Conventional Satellites to Small, Micro and Nano Satellites

A small satellite is usually under 500 kg.⁸ While all such satellites can be referred to as ‘small,’ different classifications are used to categorise them based on mass. The primary rationale for miniaturising satellites is to reduce the cost as heavier satellites require larger, more expensive rockets with greater thrust. In contrast, multiple smaller and lighter satellites can be launched in smaller and cheaper vehicles. They can also be launched ‘piggybacking,’ using excess capacity on larger launch vehicles. The nanosatellite and microsatellite segments of the satellite launch industry have been growing rapidly in recent years.

Micro Satellites. The term “microsatellite” or “microsat” is usually applied to a satellite with a wet mass between 10 and 100 kg.⁹ In 2018, the two Mars ‘Cube One’ microsats with a mass of just 13.5 kg each became the first CubeSats to leave Earth orbit for use in interplanetary space.

Nano Satellites. A “Nanosatellite” or “nanosat” has a wet mass between 1 and 10 kg. Designs and proposed designs of these types may be launched individually or they may have multiple nanosatellites working together or in formation. Therefore, sometimes the term ‘satellite swarm’ or fractionated spacecraft may be applied for those satellites.

ISRO Nano Satellites (INS). INS is a versatile and modular Nano satellite bus system envisioned for future science and experimental payloads. With a capability to carry up to 3 kg of payload and a total satellite mass of 11 kg, it offers immense opportunities for future use. The INS system is developed as a co-passenger satellite to accompany bigger satellites on PSLV launch vehicle. Thus far, three Nano satellites have been launched successfully.

Vulnerabilities of Satellites

Satellites can encounter either software or physical vulnerabilities from belligerents. This is explained below: -

• Software Vulnerabilities. An attempt can be made to put satellite in uncontrolled orbit by establishing unauthorised communication with satellite by decoding the software programming used to command/control it. Therefore, ISRO military satellites use advanced encryption modes for secure communication.

• Physical Vulnerabilities. These include using Anti-Satellite (ASAT) weapons to physically destroy the satellite. There are various international treaties which prohibit the use of weapons in space. However, the possibility that ASAT weapons could be used in violation of treaties cannot be ruled out considering the dependency on space and vulnerabilities are likely to keep increasing. As mentioned earlier ASAT testing has been done on one’s own satellites so far by the US, Russia, China and India (Mission Shakti programme).

Effective Use of Satellites in Recent Past

• As discussed earlier, satellites can prove to be a vital tool for providing IMINT during strikes and in monitoring sensitive areas.

• Naval exercises can be monitored via satellites.

• It can be assumed that all shipping, including warships in areas of interest, are being monitored regularly as well.

• Presence or absence of warships & other objects of interest like ports, shipbuilding infrastructure All contribute to development of strategic and operational pictures that are developed through further analyses and diverse inputs.

Real Time Monitoring and Imagery of Targets. At present, the capability for real time maritime surveillance using satellites is a work in progress at present. This is difficult for older space- players as well. However, efforts are on. For instance, Euro countries have a project called ‘Common Information Sharing Environment (CISE)’ for the EU maritime domain. The project is under development and could ensure effective maritime data exchange between EU countries. Some challenges in real- time maritime surveillance are:

• A Large Constellation of Satellites. To cover the entire AOI, a large constellation of satellites with image resolution less than one metre is required. For a Low Earth Orbit (LEO) constellation, a minimum of twenty LEO satellites are required to achieve a revisit time of thirty minutes to one-hour. For a Geosynchronous Earth Orbit (GEO) constellation, at least two satellites are required to cover IOR.

• Financial Implications and Capacity Constraints. There are huge financial implications involved in development and launch of large constellations of satellites. Moreover, capacity constraints within ISRO further add on to the problem. However, with the introduction of space start-ups, it is expected that satellite launches could increase in the near future.

• Limitation of Orbiting of Satellites Contrary to Earth Rotation. It is a tricky and complicated task to undertake continuous monitoring of a particular target as the Earth rotates from West to East, whereas satellites move in ascending and descending passes. Therefore, if a particular satellite misses the target in its first orbit, then, either the user needs to wait for another satellite to orbit over same area or wait for the same satellite to re-visit the same area.

Research on Capability Gaps - So Near and Yet so Far

Need to Enhance Space Transportation Infrastructure. Any space transportation infrastructure consists of launch pads and launch stations. At present, the Satish Dhawan Space Centre (SDSC),Sriharikota in Andhra Pradesh and the Thumba Equatorial Rocket Launch Station (TERLS) located at Thiruvananthapuram are the only two launch sites in India. SDSC has just two launch pads for PSLV and GSLV. TERLS has only one pad for sounding rockets.¹⁰ Our space programme has some constraints in the number of satellite and other launch-related infrastructure. To meet the growing satellite launch requirements of both domestically and internationally driven demands, the development of new launch pads and launch stations is very critical. Further, the feasibility to launch from sea platforms to cater for ‘launch on demand’ could also be explored on priority.

Develop Satellites with ELINT Capability. ELINT is an effective means of assessing a foreign military’s electronic order of battle, including ground-based air defence radars and maritime surveillance systems. As mentioned, ELINT capability has already been demonstrated by launching EMISat under DRDO project Kautilya. However, the development of more ELINT satellites is still at a nascent stage. ELINT satellites have inherent advantages of search, intercept, locate, record and analysis of radiated EM energy. Being in geosynchronous orbit, they remain stationary or nearly so with respect to a ground station. This allows them to monitor a large part of the Earth's surface and to continuously downlink to a fixed ground station. As a result, almost the entire radio spectrum can be monitored and down linked in real-time. The Indian Navy needs to acquire an effective ELINT capability by launching four satellites in the near future.¹¹

Military Position Navigation Timing (PNT) Satellites. The launch of NavIC will provide accurate real-time positioning and timing services to Indian Armed Forces under ‘Restricted Domain.’ However, the constellation covers only India and a region extending 1,500 km around it. Therefore, the constellation size needs to be increased to cover the entire globe and to ensure redundancy of satellites.

Missile Launch Warning Capability. There is an urgent requirement to develop satellites fitted with infra-red sensors capable of detecting intense sources of heat radiated from missiles and nuclear explosions. The usage of ships capable of detecting missiles at longer ranges is the first step to enhance missile launch warning capability against state-centric threats. However, a Satellite Based Infrared System (SBIRS) is needed to enhance the capability since it can detect missiles and nuclear threats anywhere in the world. For instance, during Operation Desert Storm by the US, infra-red satellites were able to detect the launches of Iraqi Scud missiles and provided timely warnings to civilians and military forces in Israel and Saudi Arabia.¹²

Space Situational Awareness (SSA). SSA enables us to detect, predict and assess the risk to life and property due to remnant man-made space objects, in-orbit explosions and collisions, disruption of missions and effects of space weather phenomena on space and ground-based infrastructure. The satellite collision between the American Iridium 33 and the Russian Kosmos 2251 communications satellites over Siberia in 2009 was the first publicly confirmed hyper-velocity accident between two artificial satellites in Earth orbit. Space can literally be considered as the ‘ground’ from which a particular state could control the battlefield. ISRO has been dependent on North America Aerospace Defence Command (NORAD) data for tracking debris and monitoring of the active and passive satellites in the orbit. However, ISRO is not a NORAD member and so hasn’t been able to access real time data.¹³ This has resulted in lack of accuracy, precision and delay in locating space debris. Therefore, developing ground facilities and networking them with space assets is vital for SSA.

Self-Reliance in Space. Production of dedicated space assets has become mandatory as the continuation of commercial space services are not guaranteed in hostile situations. For instance, US denied GPS services to Indian Army during 1999 Kargil war. Priority must be given to development of dedicated military assets, include ground space stations, SSA monitoring infrastructure, secure data sharing network and rapid induction of satellites.

Civil-Military Fusion in Space Sector. The development and launch of military satellites has been singlehandedly carried out by ISRO until now. This is where, as part of Atmanirbharta enhancement, the private sector could play critical roles in development of space assets catering to specific military requirements. In this context, Government- Owned Contractor-Operated (GOCO) model or Public Private Partnership (PPP) model may be followed.

Future Layered Structure of Satellites for Effective Space Based Intelligence. Target 2027

Concept of Layered Constellation and its Operation. A layered structure of satellites consists of a three-layered structure of GEO, LEO and Micro satellites operating in respective orbits. GEO satellites will be used to cover the entire Earth’s surface for detection of electronic and infra-red signals and communications. The data collected by satellites will be downloaded by the ground stations. Since, the payload resolution of GEO satellites is not capable of identifying the exact source of emitted radiations, high resolution LEO satellites will be used for imagery intelligence to identify the exact area/source of radiations. The imagery data will be downloaded by the ground stations. For continuous/real time updates, a swarm of micro or nano satellites operating at height of only 250-300 Kms will be used for continuous monitoring of targets. The updates received by ground stations will be transmitted to required users via high-bandwidth communication satellites operating in GEO orbit. Additionally, the ground infrastructure consisting of Telemetry, Tracking and Command (TTC) and ground stations have to be set up for controlling multiple satellites.

Fig 1: Proposed Concept of Layered Constellation of Satellites (The schematic diagram is the author’s)

Advantages of Layered Constellations

• Detection of multiple targets anywhere in expanded AOI through GEO satellites and subsequently, earmarking of exact area of target(s) via imagery intelligence through LEO satellites.

• Real time imagery or regular updates of multiple targets through swarm of micro-satellites.

• Co-ordination between layered satellites via ground stations eliminates information gaps, which otherwise can lead to missing of vital data about targets.

• Effective use of ordnance from a variety of platforms, including shore-based missiles, from submarines, from surface untis and aircraft due to the queuing available.

• This type of constellation could have much greater reliability for real time maritime surveillance of AOI. Continuous monitoring of maritime activities of belligerents or targets of interest can be achieved for longer durations.

Layered Constellation with Inter- Satellite Links (ISL)

Explanation of Inter-Satellite Links. An ISL allows communication between two satellites on the same LEO, MEO or GEO orbit called intra-layer link or on different orbits/layers called inter-layer link. ISl has at least three advantages of ISL. First, in an ISL multi-layered architecture, all satellites are linked to each other and information sharing can happen in space itself with minimal involvement of ground systems. Secondly, it enables faster communications between satellites. Thirdly, a combination of inter-layer and intra-layer links can be used to bypass the most traffic congested layers of the ground system architecture and allow each system collaborating with other systems to increase the quality of the service, and to integrate different services (communication, imagery, PNT, ELINT etc.) in a single system of systems.

Proposed Steps for Future Satellite Constellations

Preliminary Research. It involves investing of resources into the development of advanced technologies that could be applied to develop new satellite programmes or to overcome a bottleneck on a specific program. This requires dedicated offices responsible for preliminary research planning and disseminating research results. Concerned agencies could work together and cooperate to research projects for maritime surveillance and for payload designs.

Concept/Programme Validation. During the program validation phase, developed operational and technical requirements documentation would be forwarded for consideration and approval of DSA/Administrative Authorities. Validation involves the development of mock-ups and assessment of alternatives, along with cost and operational effectiveness assessments.

Engineering R&D. After approval of the programme, R&D phase will commence with the active involvement of a network of research institutes to undertake the R&D study. In 2020, the Union Cabinet approved a draft legislation that enabled the private sector to collaborate with ISRO on various space missions and use ISRO’s facilities. These reforms will be implemented by a new nodal agency, the Indian National Space Promotion and Authorisation Centre (IN-SPACe), and ISRO’s commercial activities will be delegated to government owned units named as New Space India Ltd. (NSIL) and Antrix. ISRO will focus only on R&D, scientific missions and space exploration. Also, the NSIL will re-orient its space activities from a ‘supply-driven model’ to a ‘demand-driven model’ and ensure optimum utilisation of space assets. The R&D organisations must work closely with end user acquisition offices to ensure economy of effort, timely production and cost-effective use of resources.

Design Finalisation. During the design finalisation phase, the research agencies could evaluate if a satellite or launch vehicle meets operational and technical requirements. Testing is carried out and evaluated in accordance with these requirements as also of the Tactical Technology Index and R&D Mission document. The design may be finalised, if it meets all the program requirements.

Recommendations: Proposed Actions to Be Undertaken to Further Strengthen the Space Domain for Military Purposes

Mutual Sharing of Satellite Data with some Partner Nations. India needs to continuously reaffirm its defence and security partnerships by signing agreements that would allow mutual future to access to satellite data with some partners. As a first step, India has signed Basic Exchange and Cooperation Agreement (BECA) and Maritime Information Sharing Technical Arrangement (MISTA) with US recently, which lays down protocols for the exchange of space intelligence in real time.¹⁴ There is an urgent requirement to approach more countries for the sharing of satellite data.

Integrating Available Civil, Military & Commercial Infrastructure and Expertise. Indian start-ups do not have the resources or the technology to undertake independent space projects or provide space-based services. There is need to acknowledge at every level of government that the private sector in India can be trusted to play an equally important role in the modernisation of India’s defence sector space capabilities. This requires greater ease-of-doing-business. Without long-term contracts, certainty of volumes, a quick selection process, transparency and fair payment terms, there will be little incentive for private players to invest the huge resources required for production of space assets. The ‘C3I Triad model’ of Co-operation, Collaboration, Co-ordination and Integration of civil, military and commercial infrastructure may be adopted for better synergy between all stakeholders of the space segment.

Joint Development of Satellites. International cooperation is a strategic area for a space programme because relationships with other countries are influenced by scientific and technological factors. India has always recognised that space has an-extra-national dimension in which international partnerships can be very beneficial. Therefore, we must pursue bilateral and multilateral relations with space agencies and space related bodies with the aim of building and strengthening existing ties between countries, taking up new scientific and technological challenges, refining space policies and defining international frameworks for exploitation and utilisation of outer space for peaceful purposes. Accordingly, efforts must be made for joint development of military satellites with some trusted partner nations.

Strong Co-operation between Civil and Military Institutions for R&D. R&D in aerospace will not only lead to industrial growth in the country, but will also help it to become an economic superpower. Educational institutions must train and motivate students to take up research as a career. The first step towards building an R&D ecosystem is setting up of state-of-art research facilities on campuses with industry collaboration. As a maiden step, Agnikul Cosmos, an IIT Madras incubated start-up, has made substantial progress in space capabilities.

Need to Adopt the Concept of ‘Payload Swivel’ to Cover More Swath. The present satellites cover the swath ranging from 10 Km to 50 Km based on the type of satellite being employed for imagery. To achieve the desired swath, the entire satellite is rotated to a particular inclination angle with the help of steerable sensors fitted on it. However, present-day military satellites use the technique of payload swivel instead of moving the entire satellite to achieve the swath desired. Therefore, payload swivel technology is required to be adopted for future military satellites.

To conclude, India’s strategic defence capabilities as well as operational and tactical offensive and defensive imperatives require a sharper focus on leveraging the vast emptiness of space by resourcing civil-military fusion, a deeper understanding of technologies, human and infrastructure resourcing and a national determination as well as leveraging international friendships. One may say, finally, that it is not only the launch vehicles that require the ‘thrust’ but also every segment of India’s space programme.

Endnotes

1. Ajay Lele, Space and Maritime Security (New Delhi: National Maritime Foundation, 2017).

2. Rajat Pandit, “India to Hold first Simulated Space Warfare Exercise Next Month,” The Times of India, 08 June 2019. https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/india-to-hold-first-simulated-space-warfare-exercise-next-month/artic leshow/69697289.cms, accessed 02 February 2022.

3. Doris Elin Urrutia, “India's Anti-Satellite Missile Test is a Big Deal. Here's Why,” Space.com, 30 March 2019. https://www.space.com/india-anti-satellite-test-significance.html, accessed 02 February 2022.

4. Defence Research and Development Organisation, Ministry of Defence, Government of India, “Kautilya.” https://www.drdo.gov.in/kautilya, accessed 02 February 2022.

5. Rakesh Sharma, India in Space (New Delhi: Harper Collins Publishers, 2020).

6. Department for Promotion of Industry and Internal Trade, Ministry of Commerce and Industry, Government of India. https://www.startupindia.gov.in/, accessed 15 February 2022.

7. Indian Space Research Organisation, Department of Space, Government of India, “Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System (IRNSS): NavIC.” https://www.isro.gov. In/irnss-programme, accessed 15 February 2022.

8. Indian Space Research Organisation, Department of Space, Government of India, “Small Satellites.” https://www.isro.gov.in/spacecraft/small-satellites, accessed 15 February 2022.

9. Ibid.

10. Indian Space Research Organisation, Department of Space, Government of India, “Launchers.” https://www.isro.gov.in/spacecraft/small-satellites, accessed 15 February 2022.

11. Doctrine on Space Operations Including Satellite Communications: Naval Operational Publication 1-25/2016.

12. Stephen Clark, “Atlas 5 Rocket launches Infrared Missile Detection Satellite for U.S. Space Force,” Space Flight Now, 18 May 2021. https://spaceflightnow.com/2021/05/18/atlas-5-rocket-launches-infrared-missile-detection-satellite-for-u-s-space -force/, accessed 15 February 2022.

13. North American Aerospace Defense Command, “Norad and Usnorthcom Strategy.” https://www.norad.mil/, accessed 20 February 2022.

14. Meghan Bartels, “NASA and Axiom Ink Deal for 1st Private Astronaut Mission to Space Station,” Sapce.com, 11 May 2021. https://www.space.com/nasa-axiom-private-space-station-flight-agreement, accessed 20 February 2022.